- a major continuous landmass on Earth
- seven continents: Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, South America
- shaped by plate tectonics over billions of years through rifting, collision, and drift
- arrangement determines ocean currents, climate zone distribution, and biome placement
- supercontinents form and break apart cyclically: Pangaea, Gondwana, Rodinia
- each continent carries distinct geological history, soil types, and evolutionary lineages
- continental shelves extend underwater, hosting rich coral reef and marine ecosystems